Thyroid Cancer: Risk Factors and Prevention

Thyroid cancer is the fastest increasing newly diagnosed cancer worldwide regardless of age, sex, race or ethnic background. According to the Mayo Clinic the number of people diagnosed with the condition is rising is rising.  Women are three times more likely than men to be diagnosed with the condition and sadly, childhood cancer survivors are also at an increased risk. The National Cancer Instituted noted that during the year 2011, an estimated 36,550 women were diagnosed with thyroid cancer in the USA, compared to 11,470 men.

RISK FACTORS:  Columbia University Medical Center noted that 20 to 25 percent of patients with medullary thyroid cancer and 5 percent of patients with papillary thyroid cancer have a family member who had thyroid cancer.

One type of medullary thyroid cancer, MEN 2A associated medullary thyroid cancer, usually results from a mutation of the gene RET proto-oncogene. Another type of medullary thyroid cancer, familial medullary thyroid cancer, is passed down through families.

Another genetic condition that increases the risk of thyroid cancer is familial adenomatous polyposis, a condition in which the patient develops multiple benign polyps in her colon that will become malignant if not removed. Cetta et al. noted that papillary thyroid cancer is a rare manifestation of familial adenomatous polyposis.

Exposure to radiation is another risk factor of thyroid cancer, such as radiation therapy that is targeted to the neck. Before the link between radiation and thyroid cancer was known, radiation was used to treat many benign diseases.

MedlinePlus noted that people who had radiation therapy during childhood have an increased risk of thyroid cancer. People exposed to radiation through nuclear plant accidents or nuclear weapons also have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer.

People who have either had a goiter or who have a family history of goiters also have an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer. A goiter is a noncancerous enlargement of the thyroid gland. Goiters may occur for unknown reasons.

People who do not get enough iodine in their diet may develop colloid goiters, or endemic goiters. MedlinePlus stated that on some occasions, medications such as aminoglutethimide and lithium can cause nontoxic goiters, or sporadic goiters.

PREVENTION: While there is no way to prevent thyroid cancer, people at risk can take certain precautions. For example, the MayoClinic.com noted that people with the genetic mutation that puts them at increased risk for medullary thyroid cancer may choose to have a prophylactic thyroidectomy. Prophylactic thyroidectomy is surgery on the thyroid gland done to prevent medullary thyroid cancer.

In cases of a radiation emergency, people at risk, such as people living near a nuclear power plant, may take potassium iodine to prevent the thyroid gland from taking in radioactive iodine released in the air. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention warned that potassium iodine is only taken when advised by a physician, emergency management official or public health official.

REFERENCES:

• National Cancer Institute. Cancer of the Thyroid – Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results. Web. 10 January 2012  

• Cetta F, Curia MC, Montalto G, Gori M, Cama A, Battista P and Barbarisi A. “Thyroid Carcinoma Usually Occurs in Patients with Familial Adenomatous Polyposis in the Absence of Biallelic Inactivation of the Adenomatous Polyposis Coli Gene.” The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, January 2000. Web. 10 January 2012 

• MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Goiter – Simple. Web. 10 January 2012 

• Columbia University Medical Center. Thyroid Cancer – Risk Factors. Web. 10 January 2012 

• MayoClinic.com. Thyroid Cancer. Web. 10 January 2012 

• MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Thyroid Cancer. Web. 10 January 2012 

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Potassium Iodine. Web. 10 January 2012 

Reviewed January 10, 2011

by Michele Blacksberg RN

Common Foods that May Contain Carcinogens

New Year's is just around the corner! Many of us starting thinking about our New Years Resolutions for Health and Fitness without a second thought to cancer causing ingredients in our diet but recently all the medical talk shows and magazines are increasing addressing the issue of cancer causing foods and food ingredients. 

If you "Google" cancer causing ingredients that search turns up about 2,160,000 in about .59 seconds! With all the talk about the bad-for-you ingredients in foods, you may be wondering what’s just iffy (like that doughnut in the morning) and what’s really bad. Are there really foods that could be setting you up for  cancer in the future?

Though science can’t yet tell us if eating hot dogs increases the risk for cancer, for example, they can tell us that some ingredients in hot dogs may be carcinogenic. Here are the top ten foods to stay away from for that reason alone.

1.  Potato chips and French fries. According to the National Cancer Institute, acrylamide is a chemical used for industrial purposes that is found in many foods, with particularly high levels in some potato chips, French fries, and other foods cooked at high temperatures. (Baking, roasting, and frying can all produce acrylamide.) Based on animal studies, acrylamide is considered a probable human carcinogen. Though the Environmental Protection Agency regulates levels of acrylamide in drinking water, there are currently no guidelines on acrylamide in food itself. Boiled potatoes have been found to be free of acrylamide.

2.  Hot dogs and deli meats. Many of these contain nitrites as preservatives, which during the cooking process, can form carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds. These compounds have been associated with several different cancers. One study published in Cancer Causes & Control, for example, found that children eating more than 12 hot dogs a month had nine times the normal risk of developing childhood leukemia. Any cured meat may contain nitrites, including lunch meats, bacon, ham, and even cured fish. And so far, “organic” and “natural” hot dogs aren’t much better—an article in The New York Times noted they often contain nitrites, too.

3.  Canned foods. Cans used to store foods are often coated in a type of plastic that’s made with bisphenol-A (BPA), a chemical that’s been linked to breast cancer and prostate cancer because of its hormone-altering capabilities. Though not labeled a carcinogen on its own, evidence suggests that it increases cancer susceptibility through changes to DNA. A recent study found that people who ate canned soup for five days straight saw their urinary levels of BPA spike 1,200 percent compared to those who ate fresh soup. Buy foods in boxes, jars, and BPA-free cans.

4.  Chicken and apple juice. Recent studies have found both chicken and apple juice sold in the U.S. can contain small levels of arsenic, which has been linked to skin, lung, and bladder cancer. Some apple juices were found to contain more than the amount deemed safe in drinking water. The good news is that as a result of an FDA study on chicken, the manufacturer of the chicken feed laced with arsenic said it would pull the ingredient off the market. The debate on juice is still ongoing. Carefully research the brands you buy.

5.  Restaurant grilled or pan-fried chicken. A study published in Nutrition and Cancerfound that when 100 samples of grilled chicken from seven popular chain restaurants contained PhIP, a known human carcinogen. The restaurants where the samples were obtained included Applebee’s, Burger King, Chick-fil-A, Chili’s, McDonald’s, Outback, and T.G.I. Friday’s—and watch out. Some of the samples tested included the grilled chicken that’s used on salads.

6.  Donuts, rolls, and buns. Most of these are made from white flour, and white flour may contain potassium bromate, a food additive used in the bread-making process that has been found to be carcinogenic in animal studies. The Center for Science in the Public Interest has petitioned the FDA to prohibit the use of potassium bromate, but so far it is not restricted in the U.S. Donuts are also full of sugar and trans fats, so either cut them out completely, or eat sparingly. Look for “potassium bromate” or “bromated flour” on the ingredient label. Brands like Orowheat, Entenmann’s, Pepperidge Farm, and Pillsbury have switched to bromate-free processes. Supermarket chains like Giant, Jewel, Ralph’s, and Von’s also do not use bromate.

Do you have tips for avoiding carcinogens in food? Please share!

References Sources:

National Cancer Institute Fact Sheet, “Acrylamide in Food and Cancer Risk.” 

William Neuman, “What’s Inside the Bun?” The New York Times, July 1, 2011. 

Ruth A. Keri, et al., “An Evaluation of Evidence for the Carcinogenic Activity of Bisphenol A,” Reprod. Toxicol, 2007; 24(2): 240-252.

Jenny L. Carwile, et al. “Canned Soup Consumption and Urinary Bisphenol A: A Randomized Crossover Trial.” The Journal of the American Medical Association, November 23/30, 2011, Vol. 306, No. 20, pp 2187-2283. 

Kristie M. Sullivan, et al., “Detection of PhIP in Grilled Chicken Entrees at Popular Chain Restaurants Throughout California.”Nutrition and Cancer Volume 60, Issue 5, 2008. 

Y Kurokawa, et al., “Toxicity and Carcinogenicity of Potassium Bromate—a New Renal Carcinogen,” Environ Health Perspect.1990 July; 87: 309-335. 

Fukushima Children Tested for Thyroid Cancer Risk

Demonstration of Radioactivity from Thyroid Cancer Treatment

Q: What do you do when you are 1) a nerd, 2) just received a high dose of a radioactive substance in your body, and 3) have nothing else to do because you can hardly concentrate?

A: You make a teaching video illustrating radiation.

The really interesting thing is that the dose of Iodine was actually 1.2 micrograms which equates to 5.5 billion radiation particles per second. A teaspoon of table salt contains this much non-radioactive Iodine!

Thyroid Cancer Risk Factors: 2011 Update

Doctors often cannot explain why one person develops thyroid cancer and another does not. However, it is clear that no one can catch thyroid cancer from another person.

Research has shown that people with certain risk factors are more likely than others to develop thyroid cancer. A risk factor is something that may increase the chance of developing a disease.

Studies have found the following risk factors for thyroid cancer:

• Radiation: 
  
  
  People exposed to high levels of radiation are much more likely than others to develop papillary or follicular thyroid cancer. One important source of radiation exposure is treatment with x-rays. Between the 1920s and the 1950s, doctors used high-dose x-rays to treat children who had enlarged tonsils, acne, and other problems affecting the head and neck. Later, scientists found that some people who had received this kind of treatment developed thyroid cancer.
  
  
  (Routine diagnostic x-rays - such as dental x-rays or chest x-rays - use very low doses of radiation. Their benefits usually outweigh their risks. However, repeated exposure could be harmful, so it's a good idea to talk with your dentist and doctor about the need for each x-ray and to ask about the use of shields to protect other parts of the body.)
  
  
  Another source of radiation is radioactive fallout. This includes fallout from atomic weapons testing (such as the testing in the United States and elsewhere in the world, mainly in the 1950s and 1960s), nuclear power plant accidents (such as the Chornobyl [also called Chernobyl] accident in 1986), and releases from atomic weapons production plants (such as the Hanford facility in Washington state in the late 1940s). 
  
  
  Such radioactive fallout contains radioactive iodine (I-131) and other radioactive elements. People who were exposed to one or more sources of I-131, especially if they were children at the time of their exposure, may have an increased risk of thyroid diseases. For example, children exposed to radioactive iodine from the Chernobyl accident have an increased risk of thyroid cancer.
  
  
  Family history of medullary thyroid cancer: 
• Medullary thyroid cancer sometimes runs in families. A change in a gene called RET can be passed from parent to child. Nearly everyone with the changed RET gene develops medullary thyroid cancer. The disease occurs alone as familial medullary thyroid cancer or with other cancers as multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) syndrome.
  
  
  A blood test can detect the changed RET gene. If it's found in a person with medullary thyroid cancer, the doctor may suggest that family members be tested. For those who have the changed gene, the doctor may recommend frequent lab tests or surgery to remove the thyroid before cancer develops.
• Family history of goiters or colon growths: 
• A small number of people with a family history of having goiters (swollen thyroids) with multiple thyroid nodules are at risk for developing papillary thyroid cancer. Also, a small number of people with a family history of having multiple growths on the inside of the colon or rectum (familial polyposis) are at risk for developing papillary thyroid cancer.
• Personal history: 
• People with a goiter or benign thyroid nodules have an increased risk of thyroid cancer.
• Being female: 
• In the United States, women are almost three times more likely than men to develop thyroid cancer.
• Iodine: 
• Iodine is a substance found in shellfish and iodized salt. Scientists are studying iodine as a possible risk factor for thyroid cancer. Too little iodine in the diet may increase the risk of follicular thyroid cancer. However, other studies show that too much iodine in the diet may increase the risk of papillary thyroid cancer. More studies are needed to know whether iodine is a risk factor.

Having one or more risk factors does not mean that a person will get thyroid cancer. Most people who have risk factors never develop cancer.  However it's important to remember that thyroid cancer is the fastest increasing newly diagnosed cancer in America today regardless of age, sex, race or ethnic background.

Thyroid Cancer Outlook Review By Type

There are four main types of thyroid cancer:

* papillary carcinoma – this is the most common type, accounting for 4 out 5 of all cases; it usually affects people under 40 years of age, especially women

* follicular carcinoma – this accounts for around 1 in 10 cases and tends to affects older adults

* medullary thyroid carcinoma – this accounts for around 1 in 20 cases; unlike the other types of thyroid cancer, cases of medullary thyroid carcinoma can run in families

* anaplastic thyroid carcinoma – this is the least common and most aggressive type of thyroid cancer, accounting for 1 in a 100 cases; most cases of anaplastic thyroid carcinoma affect older people who are between 60 to 80 years of age

In  biological terms, papillary and follicular carcinomas have a lot in common so they are collectively known as differentiated thyroid cancers (DTCs).

Ionising Radiation

The cause of thyroid cancer is largely unclear. The most important risk factor is exposure to ionising radiation, particularly if the exposure occurred during childhood. However, this cause accounts for a tiny minority of cases.

Ionising radiation is the more powerful type of radiation, as opposed to non-ionising radiation, which is the safer type of radiation released by devices such as mobile phones.

Most people will only experience exposure to significant amounts of ionising radiation if they undergo medical procedures such as X-rays or radiotherapy. Even then the amounts should be low enough not to pose a major risk.

However, before the link between ionising radiation and thyroid cancer was properly understood, many children were exposed to potentially dangerous levels of radiation to treat often harmless conditions, such as acne.

Historically, there are two major events that led to people being exposed to high levels of ionising radiation and a subsequent rise in thyroid cancer cases:

* the detonation of atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945

* the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in Ukraine in 1986

See the Health A-Z topic about Radiation for more information.

Outlook

Differentiated Thyroid Cancers

The outlook for the differentiated thyroid cancers (DTCs) is very good. These types of thyroid cancer tend to be both very slow growing and relatively straightforward to treat.

Treatment involves a two-step procedure:

* surgery is used to remove most or all of the thyroid gland

* a radioactive chemical called iodine is then used to kill off any remaining cancerous cells

Of the people with DTCs, 80-90% will live a normal lifespan.

Medullary Thyroid Carcinomas

The outlook for cases of medullary thyroid carcinoma is less favourable, as this type of thyroid cancer does not respond to iodine treatment so it can be difficult to remove all of the cancerous cells. However, the outlook is still a lot better than for most other types of cancer.

Survival rates for medullary thyroid carcinoma depend on what stage the cancer has advanced to when it is diagnosed (see Thyroid cancer – diagnosis for more information about the stages of thyroid cancer). If it is diagnosed in its early stages then the outlook is excellent, with almost all (97%) people living at least five years after a diagnosis.

If medullary thyroid carcinoma is only diagnosed when it has spread to other parts of the body then the outlook is poor, with only 1 in 4 people living at least five years after diagnosis.

However, the outlook for advanced medullary thyroid carcinoma may well improve in the future. A number of clinical trials ((a type of research that tests one treatment against another) looking at new types of medication known as targeted therapies have reported good result in terms of extending survival rates. For more information see Thyroid cancer – treatment and Thyroid cancer – clinical trials.

Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma is a very aggressive type of thyroid cancer with an extremely poor outlook. Less than 1 in 10 people will live at least five years after receiving a diagnosis, with the average survival time being eight months.

Thyroid Nodules, Thyroid Lumps & The Thyroid Enlargement Known as a Goiter.

If your doctor has diagnosed you as having a thyroid nodule, a thyroid lump or an enlargement of the thyroid known as goiter, you'll want to know more about the diagnosis and treatment process, the relationship between nodules to thyroid cancer, and follow up. Alternatively, you may experience a swelling of the thyroid gland, also known as a goiter.

Thyroid nodules are very common. A nodule is a swelling or lump, which can be a solid or liquid filled cyst or mass. Most are benign, but a small percentage can be cancerous. So you should always have a nodule evaluated by your physician as soon as you notice it. An estimated one in 12 to 15 women and one in 50 men has a thyroid nodule More than 90 percent of all thyroid nodules are not cancerous.

Some symptoms of thyroid nodules include palpitations, insomnia, weight loss, anxiety, and tremors, common in hyperthyroidism.  Common hypothyroidism symptoms might include weight gain, fatigue, depression. Some people will cycle back and forth between hyperthyroid and hypothyroid symptoms. Others may have difficulty swallowing, a feeling of fullness, pain or pressure in the neck, a hoarse voice, or neck tenderness. And finally, many people have nodules with no obvious symptoms related to thyroid dysfunction at all.

A goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid, and is sometimes used as a term to refer to an enlarged thyroid. The thyroid becomes large enough so that it can be seen as enlarged on ultrasounds or x- rays, and may be enlarged enough to enlarge the neck area visibly. Some symptoms of a goiter include tenderness to the touch, pressing on your windpipe or your esophagus, coughing, hoarseness, shortness of breath, fullness in your neck, choking or shortness of breath at night, or a feeling that food is getting stuck in your throat.

Goitre is caused due to deficiency of iodine in diet, it is also known as Goiter, the deficiency of iodine causes swelling in the neck where thyroid gland is, there are 90% cases worldwide effected by goiter, iodine is a compulsory mineral for avoiding goiter, most commonly it is widely seen in those countries which are developing and the intake of salts or iodine are low there, iodine is to be taken by every men, women, children, teenage and infant to avoid goiter.

The Thyroid and Thyroid Disease Risks

The thyroid is a small gland, shaped like a butterfly, located in the lower part of your neck. The function of a gland is to secrete hormones. The main hormones released by the thyroid are triiodothyronine, abbreviated as T3, and thyroxine, abbreviated as T4. These thyroid hormones deliver energy to cells of the body. The most common problems that develop in the thyroid include: hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid), hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid), goiter (an enlarged thyroid), thyroid nodules (lumps in the thyroid gland), thyroid cancer (malignant thyroid nodules or tissue), and thyroiditis.

You have a higher risk of developing thyroid disease if, among a variety of factors:

…You have a family member with a thyroid problem

…You have another pituitary or endocrine disease

…You or a family member have another autoimmune disease

…You've been diagnosed with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

…You've been diagnosed with Fibromyalgia

…You're female

…You're over 60

…You've just had a baby

…You're near menopause or menopausal

…You're a smoker

…You've been exposed to radiation

…You've been treated with lithium

…You've been exposed to certain chemicals (i.e., perchlorate, fluoride)

Radioactive Idoine 131: What is it and Why Should You Care?

Iodine-131 is a radioactive particle that is produced by the fission of uranium atoms within nuclear reactors. It can also be produced by plutonium and/or uranium in the detonation of nuclear weapons. Iodine-131 takes the solid form of a purplish-blackish crystal. It can undergo sublimation, which means it can go from a solid to a gas without first becoming a liquid. Iodine-131 dissolves in water.

Occurrence: 

• Iodine-131 can get into the environment through air or water.
• Being that Iodine-131 is created through fission, the substance matures within rods, but if the rods are not carefully monitored then pressure within the rod can increase, leading to corrosion and eventually leakage.
• Iodine-131 can get into water by a similar process; however it leaks into the liquid surrounding the cracked rod that is typically used to cool it. This liquid then circulates throughout the facility.
• While Iodine-131 has the tendency to attach to organic particles, such as soil, it can be spread fairly quickly through water.
• Iodine-131 can be ingested within water; since it dissolves in water it can easily move from the atmosphere to humans.
• Some doctors actually use small amounts of ingested Iodine-131 to detect thyroid problems.

Health Effects:

• Long term exposure to radioactive Idodine-131 can cause thyroid cancer.
• Low doses of Iodine-131 can also lower the activity of the thyroid gland by lowering the production of hormones.
• Doctors sometimes use small doses of Iodine-131 to treat an overactive thyroid, however the equilibrium must be perfect or the treatment will cause cancer in the area.
• If large quantities of Iodine-131 are released via some sort of nuclear accident, government agencies can use stable, non radioactive iodine to ensure that people do not absorb too much Iodine-131.

In The News:

Following the collapse of the Fukushima nuclear plant in Japan due to the earthquakes that took place in early March 2011, Iodine-131 has been a large concern of the world media.

• On March 23, 2011, the Los Angeles Times reported that tap water should not be consumed by infants in Japan due to the presence of Iodine-131 in the water.
• In March 2011, the Philadelphia Inquirer reported that officials had discovered Iodine-131 in rain water wells in Philadelphia, which were inspected to ensure that the collapse of the plant in Japan didn’t affect water in the U.S. However, the amount found was not lethal, and officials declared the water safe to drink.

Regulation:

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has applied both water-based and airborne regulations to Iodine-131.

The regulations limit the amount of Iodine-131 that can legally be released by nuclear plants and various industrial facilities.

Water Treatment:

• EPA recommends that reverse osmosis be used to treat water containing Iodine-131.
• EPA also recommends the use of ion exchange to remove Iodine-131.

 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  

Sources:

Forbes, Los Angeles Times, Philadelphia Inquirer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Nuclear Neighbors? RNN Exclusive on Indian Point

Special Report: Indian Point Nuclear Plant neighbors find themselves in living in a Thyroid Cancer Cluster area: MUST SEE IMPORTANT INFORMATION

Texas Drinking Water Cover-Up

An investigative report by a local Houston Texas news stations reveals numerous top-level Texas Government officials participated in a massive cover up of dangerous levels of radiation causing thyroid cancer  in Texas drinking water.

The report from KHOU 11 in Houston shed light on what government watchdogs are calling "a conspiracy of the highest order" in the aftermath of the release of several email communications between Top Texas Officials in the Governors office, the state legislation, and the state agency in charge of protecting the environment in Texas.

The emails that were ordered to be released by the state attorney general reveal radiation tests of public drinking water were falsified to prevent Federal violations that would have required the local water systems to be cleaned up.

Source: http://theintelhub.com/2011/05/20/massive-texas-drinking-water-radiation-cove... 

Introduction to Pediatric Thyroid Cancer

Although a review of thyroid cancer literature contains numerous reports on the subject of pediatric thyroid carcinoma, the low incidence and subsequent lack of prospective randomized trials make drawing absolute conclusions regarding the definitive workup, management, and treatment of this disease difficult.

A detailed understanding of how to perform a comprehensive evaluation of the pediatric thyroid nodule is necessary in order to establish the diagnosis of pediatric thyroid cancer. The incidence of head and neck malignancies, including those of the thyroid, has increased 25% during the past 30 years. 

Although the incidence of thyroid nodules in children is rare before adolescence (1.5%), pediatric thyroid nodules have a 26.4% mean risk of cancer. Some authors have reported an incidence of as high as 36%. Moreover, pediatric thyroid nodules are 4 times more likely to carry a diagnosis of thyroid cancer than adult nodules. Because pediatric thyroid nodules carry this increased risk of malignancy, physicians should perform an expeditious workup.

The recommended diagnostic protocol of thyroid nodules consists of the following steps:

• Child's history, including the prior existence and treatment of a benign thyroid disease
• Clinical examination
• Laboratory tests
• Thyroid ultrasonography
• Fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB)

The beneficial role of scintigraphy is limited, and molecular marker analysis is currently more beneficial in a clinical research setting.

Most childhood thyroid nodules are asymptomatic and are detected by parents or by physicians during routine examination. Only about 50% of children with thyroid carcinoma present with nodular thyroid enlargement as the presenting symptom. Follicular adenoma is the most common cause of solitary thyroid nodules in the pediatric population; however, solitary nodules in children reportedly have a 20-73% incidence of malignancy.

Hurthle Cell Carcinoma 

A monomorphous cell population of Hürthle cells arranged in loosely cohesive clusters and single cells. The cells are polyhedral and have abundant granular cytoplasm with well-defined cell borders. The nuclei are enlarged and have a central prominent macronucleolus.  

A painless non-inflammatory metastatic cervical mass is the presenting symptom in 40-60% of patients. Malignant thyroid  lesions in children with no family history of thyroid cancer are usually papillary and follicular carcinomas. Radiation exposure, which is still used either as therapy prior to bone marrowtransplantation or as a treatment of Hodgkin disease, remains a major riskfactor.

The subsequent diagnostic workup is aimed at determining whether the lesion represents a malignancy. Collected data can be useful in preoperative planning if surgery is indicated. Pediatric and adult thyroid cancers have differing biological behaviors. 

Despite the fact that pediatric thyroid cancer usually presents at an advanced stage, it carries an excellent prognosis for most patients.

Author: Mark E Gerber, MD, FACS, FAAP  Clinical Assistant Professor of Otolaryngology, University of Chicago, Pritzker School of Medicine; Section Head, Pediatric Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, NorthShore University HealthSystem 

Co-Author: Brian Kip Reilly, MD  Assistant Professor of Otolaryngology and Pediatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Children's National Medical Center, George Washington University School of Medicine